Animals that Start with G - Listed With Pictures, Facts
Salamanders Of New York
From the SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry
Salamanders, like frogs and toads, are amphibians. This means they lead "double lives" spending their early existence as aquatic larvae which undergo metamorphosis, transforming into land-based animals. These adults typically return to the water to breed. A hallmark of amphibians is a smooth skin thatmust be kept moist because it is permeable to water. Unlike frogs, salamanders keep their larval tail and slender bodies and move about by crawling rather than jumping.
Salamanders of Large Water BodiesThere are two species of large salamanders in New York, and both spend their entire lives in water. The mudpuppy, with its bright red gills, reaches lengths of 19 inches and is found in several large rivers and lakes around the state, including the Hudson, Mohawk and Salmon rivers and lakes Ontario and Oneida. Mudpuppies have been introduced into many other lakes by people using them as a fish bait.
An even larger species is the hellbender, a big fleshy salamander of river bottoms. In New York, only a few drainages along the southern border are home to hellbenders.
The Red-Spotted NewtRed-spotted newts begin life as a small aquatic larva, residing in ponds and beaver flows. By late summer, they develop into a bright red or orange (and poisonous!) land dweller called the red eft and they remain this way for up to five years. This land stage is thought to be a dispersal period, where the efts seek out new ponds away from their parents. This appears to be a good strategy to take advantage of new ponds constantly being formed in a landscape altered by the work of beavers. Following the eft stage, the newt becomes sexually mature and re-enters the water, where they generally remain for the rest of their life. At this time, they take on a dark olive green coloration. Newts breed in early spring and may be observed in their elaborate courtship rituals in the shallows of forest lakes and ponds. Newt eggs are particularly sensitive to increased acidity and are absent from ponds affected by acid rain.
Mole Salamanders and Vernal PoolsThe tiger, spotted, Jefferson's, blue-spotted, and marbled salamanders are the New York representatives of a family known as the mole salamanders, so-called because they spend most of their adult life underground, except for a brief early spring breeding period (marbled salamanders are fall breeders). They feed upon earthworms and other subterranean invertebrates. Tiger salamanders, as their name implies, typically possess yellow stripes on a brownish body while spotted salamanders have up to 50 yellow spots on a black body. Tiger salamanders are restricted to eastern.
Long Island and are considered endangered in New York. Spotted salamanders are widespread across New York. Bluish flecks on the sides and legs of a black body characterize the Jefferson's and blue-spotted salamanders. These two are tough to distinguish as adults and, in fact, readily interbreed, creating unusual all-female hybrids. Marbled salamanders are found in the southeastern corner of New York and are recognized by white patches on a black body.
Vernal pools are small depressions in the landscape that fill with water for only part of a growing season, typically in the spring and early summer. These unique habitats are critically important for amphibians that need a place to lay their eggs free of aquatic predators like fish. The salamanders discussed above, as well as wood frogs and spring peepers, are especially linked to such mini-ecosystems. Preservation of these ephemeral water bodies, especially in private woodlots, is a major conservation goal.
Mole salamanders leave their winter retreats in early spring and migrate overland to the ponds of their birth. These brief congregations may be quite spectacular when hundreds of individuals arrive simultaneously at small ponds. Males court females underwater and if they are successful, deposit a small package of sperm called a sperm-atophore on the pool bottom. Females pick this up with the lips of their cloaca, the single opening beneath the tail, and fertilization takes place internally. Eggs are released in clusters of up to 200 and glued to underwater twigs or fallen branches. The eggs may soon take on a greenish hue, due to a kind of algae that lives in the jelly of the egg mass. In about six weeks, the eggs hatch and the salamanders exist as free-living larvae, feeding on tiny pond animals. Larvae usually metamorphose into adults by the end of summer or before the pond dries up, but some may overwinter as immatures.
Streamside SalamandersThe countless streams and creeks that course through New York are excellent places to search for a group of amphibians collectively called "streamside salamanders." In a good spot with the right combination of geography, flat rocks, clear water and a protective tree canopy, four or five species in this group may be found. While all deposit their eggs in the water and spend the first part of their life there as gill-breathing animals, adult mountain dusky salamanders may venture quite far from the stream bank. On rainy evenings it may even be found in the foliage of ferns and shrubs searching for invertebrate prey. A close relative, the northern dusky salamander, rarely strays farther than a few yards from the flowing brook, and typically is found right at the water's edge. Telling the two apart is very difficult. Adults of both species possess a pale line from the corner of the eye to the angle of the jaw. The mountain dusky has a more rounded tail and the northern dusky has a keeled tail. The very slender two-lined salamander, recognized by its bright yellow underside, tolerates a wider variety of ecological conditions. In moist woodlands following rains, they may wander many yards from the creek edge.
Attempts to capture these creatures from under rocks can prove frustrating owing to their speed and wriggling movements. The spring salamander attains the greatest size and bulk of the streamside salamanders, reaching lengths of 7-1/2 inches not including the long tail. Like the other streamside salamanders, it breathes entirely through its skin and must remain moist. As a consequence, spring salamanders rarely venture far from running water. In eastern and southern portions of the state, red and longtail salamanders also occur.
Small Woodland SalamandersSometimes it seems that every other log or rock on the forest floor harbors a redback salamander. These small (up to four inches minus the tail) creatures come in two color varieties. Most common is the typical red-backed form with the prominent red stripe on the back from head to tail bordered by dark sides. The lead-backed form lacks this stripe. Both have a distinct salt-and-pepper mottling on the belly. Like other salamanders in its family, it lacks lungs and breathes through it skin and must remain in moist places. During dry spells it moves deeper into the soil and leaf litter. Redbacks lay their eggs on land and metamorphose from the larvae to the adults directly in the egg, freeing them of the aquatic existence that other amphibians require.
Other woodland lungless salamanders include the slimy salamander, known by its white-flecked black body, large size (six inches) and the copious amounts of sticky mucous it produces when handled. The mucous is believed to be an effective defense against predators like snakes. Four-toed salamanders are a small species associated with woodland bogs while Wehrle's salamanders barely enter the state along the Pennsylvania border.
Checklist of Salamander Species Found Within New YorkConant, Roger and Joseph T. Collins. 1991. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians: eastern and central North America. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, MA. 450 p.
For Natural History:
Tyning, Thomas F. 1990. A guide to amphibians and reptiles: a Stokes nature guide. Little, Brown and Co., Boston. 400 p.
Credits:Written by Dawn Ford and Glenn Johnson, Environmental and Forest Biology, SUNY-ESF. Illustrated by Melinda Gray Ardia and Liza Corbett
Predation, Herbivory, And Parasitism
Predation influences the fitness of both predators and prey. Individuals must both feed and avoid being eaten to survive and reproduce. Genetically-determined traits that improve an organism's ability to survive and reproduce will be passed on to its offspring. Traits associated with improved predation for predators and escaping predation for prey tend to be positively selected by natural selection.
Predators exhibit traits such as sharp teeth, claws, and venom that enhance their ability to catch food. They also possess extremely acute sensory organs that help them to find potential prey. Consider the ability of raptors to spot potential prey from over a kilometer away, the acute sense of smell of moles, the ability of owls to locate mice by sound, the ability of pit vipers to sense body heat when tracking prey, and the ability of bats and dolphins to echolocate. Predators catch their prey either by pursuing potential prey or by ambushing them. Organisms that give chase are capable of short bursts of speed. Those that lie in wait tend to be camouflaged to avoid detection (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Adaptations to predation
(A) Cheetahs can sustain bursts of speed while chasing prey. (B) Species that lie in wait for their prey, such as the orchid mantis, are cryptically colored to avoid detection.
In a similar manner, prey species exhibit traits that help them avoid detection or capture. Many, such as leaf insects, moths, a variety of frogs and small lizards, and herbivorous mammals, are cryptically colored to make them more difficult to see. Behaviorally, they freeze after detecting the presence of a predator. This lack of movement helps them better blend in with their background and inhibits the ability of the predator to find them. But when predators venture too close, prey will take flight, running or flying to escape. When a chase ensues, prey will typically survive if they stay out of reach until the predator tires. Some species buy extra time by distracting the predator. Examples include moths that flash brightly colored hindwings, lizards that drop their tails, and insect larvae that discharge slime. Such actions surprise the predator and give the prey time a few extra moments to escape.
When a predator chases after potential prey, the predator is running for its dinner. The prey is running for its life. If the predator fails to capture the prey, it goes hungry, but it will not experience a large decline in fitness as a result of the interaction. In contrast, if the predator catches the prey, the captured individual loses any future opportunities to reproduce. This "life-dinner principle" sets up an evolutionary arms race between the two species (Dawkins & Krebs 1979). In this race, the prey experience strong selective pressure to evolve better adaptations to avoid being eaten. At the same time, predators must capture sufficient food to survive and reproduce, and they too are subjected to selective pressure for traits that allow them to hunt successfully. Over time, this arms race leads to traits that enable prey to better avoid capture, whereas predators become better able to capture prey.
Figure 2: Aposematic coloration
Brightly colored animals, such as the red-spotted newt (a) and monarch butterfly (b), warn potential predators against consumption. Such organisms contain toxins.
In contrast to the examples provided thus far, some prey exhibit bright coloration. Such aposematic coloration helps prevent predation by signaling to potential predators that the vividly-colored individual is toxic. Toxins may be manufactured within the body, as with the red-spotted newt, or they may be acquired passively via consumption of toxic plants, as with the monarch butterfly (Figure 2).
Figure 3: Batesian mimicry
Non-toxic Papilio dardanus swallowtail butterfly females occur in a variety of forms, each of which mimics the physical appearance of toxic species.
Not all species that exhibit vivid coloration are truly toxic. Some have evolved patterns and colors that mimic those of toxic species. Examples of such Batesian mimicry include the extraordinarily polymorphic Papilio dardanus swallowtail butterfly in southern Africa and Madagascar (Salvato 1997). Females of this species occur in a wide variety of physical appearances, nearly all of which mimic distasteful species of the Danaeus and Amauris genera with which they co-occur (Figure 3).
Sweeping Crime Bill Moves Step Closer To Passage In KY, With Emotional Testimony On Both Sides
SAY IT'S NOT ENOUGH. HOUSE BILL FIVE HAS BEEN ONE OF THE MOST CONTROVERSIAL BILLS OF THE SESSION, AND HERE IN FRANKFORT, IT'S OPPONENTS PACKED INTO A COMMITTEE ROOM AND TRIED DESPERATELY TO CONVINCE LAWMAKERS TO TRY A DIFFERENT APPROACH. WE CANNOT ARREST OUR WAY OUT OF POVERTY AND INTO A SOLUTION THAT HAS NO POSITIVE RESOLVE. MANY OF THOSE WHO SPOKE AGAINST HOUSE BILL FIVE HAD ONCE BEEN INCARCERATED BUT HAD TURNED THEIR LIVES AROUND. IF THE PROVISIONS HARSHLY CRIMINALIZING ADDICTION AND LIMITING OPPORTUNITY FOR RECOVERY IN HOUSE BILL FIVE HAD BEEN IN PLACE WHEN I WAS STRUGGLING, I WOULD NOT LIKELY BE IN FRONT OF YOU HERE TODAY. AMONG ITS MANY PROVISIONS, HOUSE BILL FIVE CREATES AN UNLAWFUL CAMPING STATUTE TO MAKE IT EASIER FOR CITIES TO CLEAR THE HOMELESS. THE BILL ALSO CREATES A STANDALONE CARJACKING STATUTE, PUNISHABLE BY 10 TO 20 YEARS IN PRISON, AND IT INSTITUTES A THREE STRIKES LAW. LIFE IN PRISON FOR ANYONE CONVICTED OF THREE VIOLENT FELONIES. TEN YEARS AGO, LOUISVILLE WAS HOVERING AROUND 80 MURDERS A YEAR IN THE LAST FOUR YEARS, WE'VE HAD 150, 164, 188 AND 182. THAT'S JUST THE FLAT OUT MURDERS. THE KENTUCKY CENTER FOR ECONOMIC POLICY WARNS THE BILL WILL CAUSE KENTUCKY'S INCARCERATED POPULATION TO EXPLODE, COSTING OVER $1 BILLION IN THE NEXT DECADE. 49 OF KENTUCKY'S FULL SERVICE JAILS AND THAT 69% OF THEM ARE OVER CAPACITY AND MORE OF MORE THAN HALF OF THEM. THAT'S A CHRONIC CONDITION REPRESENTING LAW ENFORCEMENT. THE HEAD OF THE STATE FOP, SPOKE IN FAVOR OF THE BILL UNTIL WE ADDRESS THESE ISSUES AND MAYBE TAKE A LITTLE TOUGH LOVE, UH, OUTLOOK ON SOME OF THE CRIME IN OUR STATE. LAW ENFORCEMENT IS GOING TO CONTINUE TO STRUGGLE TO KEEP A HOLD OF OUR COMMUNITY SAFETY IN THE END, THE BILL PASSED OUT OF COMMITTEE ON A VOTE OF 7 TO 3, WITH ONE REPUBLICAN SENATE JUDICIARY CHAIR WHITNEY WESTERFIELD, JOINING THE TWO DEMOCRATS WHO VOTED AGA
Sweeping crime bill moves step closer to passage in KY, with emotional testimony on both sides
Updated: 6:25 PM EDT Mar 14, 2024
A sweeping anti-crime bill now stands poised for final passage after a contentious hearing on Thursday.Opponents of House Bill 5 packed a committee room, with many taking space in an overflow room."If the provisions harshly criminalizing addiction and limiting opportunity for recovery in House Bill 5 had been in place when I was struggling, I would not likely be in front of you here today," said Mandy Fugate Sheffel, of Hazard, who once battled an Oxycontin addiction but now owns the well-known Red Spotted Newt Bookstore. The 78-page bill includes many tough-on-crime provisions, including:A new unlawful camping statute designed to make it easier for local governments and law enforcement to clear out homeless encampmentsA standalone carjacking statute, punishable by 10 to 20 years in prison. Currently, carjackings are prosecuted under the state's robbery statuteA "three strikes" rule, instituting life in prison for anyone convicted of three violent felonies One of the bill's sponsors, Rep. Jason Nemes, R-Louisville, said that while violent crime categories have gone up and down in recent years, one set of data stands out – while 10 years ago Louisville saw only 80 homicides, that number has been double that in recent years. Now, Nemes said, "We would do cartwheels for 80."The bill also creates stricter rules for parole boards considering whether to release someone from prison, a change praised by Ronnie Bowling, of the Kentucky Commonwealth's Attorneys' Association. Many domestic violence offenders who nearly kill their victims are charged with attempted murder, but a quirk in Kentucky law allows early parole for that crime, he said. "So a chronic victim who has been forced to face their accuser in court is seeing the parole board within 12-18 months," Bowling said. Many critics of the bill say it lumps too many disparate, unrelated topics together.The Kentucky Center for Economic Policy has also warned the legislation will cause the state's incarcerated population to explode, costing Kentucky $1 billion over 10 years. "There are some jails in this state that have been more than 200% over capacity for years," said Pam Thomas, a senior fellow at the center.In the end, the Senate Judiciary Committee voted 7-3 to recommend favorable passage of HB 5. The committee chair, Sen. Whitney Westerfield, was the lone Republican to join the two Democrats who voted against the bill.HB 5 could receive a floor vote in the Senate as early as Friday.
FRANKFORT, Ky. —A sweeping anti-crime bill now stands poised for final passage after a contentious hearing on Thursday.
Opponents of House Bill 5 packed a committee room, with many taking space in an overflow room.
"If the provisions harshly criminalizing addiction and limiting opportunity for recovery in House Bill 5 had been in place when I was struggling, I would not likely be in front of you here today," said Mandy Fugate Sheffel, of Hazard, who once battled an Oxycontin addiction but now owns the well-known Red Spotted Newt Bookstore.
The 78-page bill includes many tough-on-crime provisions, including:
One of the bill's sponsors, Rep. Jason Nemes, R-Louisville, said that while violent crime categories have gone up and down in recent years, one set of data stands out – while 10 years ago Louisville saw only 80 homicides, that number has been double that in recent years.
Now, Nemes said, "We would do cartwheels for 80."
The bill also creates stricter rules for parole boards considering whether to release someone from prison, a change praised by Ronnie Bowling, of the Kentucky Commonwealth's Attorneys' Association.
Many domestic violence offenders who nearly kill their victims are charged with attempted murder, but a quirk in Kentucky law allows early parole for that crime, he said.
"So a chronic victim who has been forced to face their accuser in court is seeing the parole board within 12-18 months," Bowling said.
Many critics of the bill say it lumps too many disparate, unrelated topics together.
The Kentucky Center for Economic Policy has also warned the legislation will cause the state's incarcerated population to explode, costing Kentucky $1 billion over 10 years.
"There are some jails in this state that have been more than 200% over capacity for years," said Pam Thomas, a senior fellow at the center.
In the end, the Senate Judiciary Committee voted 7-3 to recommend favorable passage of HB 5. The committee chair, Sen. Whitney Westerfield, was the lone Republican to join the two Democrats who voted against the bill.
HB 5 could receive a floor vote in the Senate as early as Friday.
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